The Greek philosopher Aristotle, writing around 330BC, declared that a whole is something which has a beginning, a middle and an end.
Aristotle was writing about the structure used by playwrights composing Greek tragedies, but his maxim holds good for any written document.
Most writing requires three stages:
1. an introduction
2. the main body
3. a conclusion
The introductory part of your writing should prepare your readers for what is to come. Put them into the picture by answering these questions:
1. What is the subject I am going to write about?
2. What particular problem, issues or questions about this am I going to address?
3. Why are these issues important?
4. What information am I going to introduce to address these issues?
5. How am I going to arrange this information to get my point across most clearly?
After you have put your readers in the picture, you can set out your information, ideas and arguments in full. In this part of the document you need to concentrate on:
1. organizing information into a logical order
2. helping your readers to follow the course of your explanation
In the final part of the document, you should remind your readers of the main points you have covered and state any conclusions that can be drawn or any points that must be acted on. It is important that the conclusion follows naturally from the main body, which should contain all of the supporting evidence for it. A satisfactory conclusion may also look back to the points set out in the introduction and answer the questions:
1. What particular problem, issues or questions about this was I going to address?
2. What information have I introduced to address these issues?
3. What possible conclusions can be drawn from the evidence?
4. What is my personal reaction?
5. What needs to be done to address the problem?
The idea of giving a structure to writing applies both to the document as a whole, and also to any self-contained sections that might exist within the document.
Organizing your material
Information should be presented in such a way that your readers can easily understand it.
A good writer will make it easy for anyone to read by
1. having a clear idea of the intended goal
2. moving forward in a series of logical steps
3. avoiding unnecessary detours
4. arriving at the destination successfully
The structure that you use will be determined by the nature of the material. Some common methods of organizing your material are:
1. ‘for and against’ structure
2. linear structure
3. thematic structure
‘For and against’ structure
A 'for and against' structure is useful if you want to present two sides of an argument. Start off in your introduction by explaining that you will look at the points for and against a particular proposition.
Then, in the main body provide a series of paragraphs each listing a point for the proposition and a second series of paragraphs each listing a point against the proposition.
The conclusion should indicate which points are the most significant, and will probably give an indication of whether you are inclined to support or oppose the proposition.
If you follow this approach you can either give the points for an argument first, followed by the arguments against, or give them the other way round. Generally, it is effective to present the points you do not agree with first, so that you can use the points you do agree with in order to have the last word. The crucial point is that you should not jump about between points for and points against.
The 'for and against' structure will work for many essay topics - particularly those that ask you to assess, discuss or examine, or those that are stated in the form of a question.
Linear structure
A linear structure is useful if you want to provide your readers with a description, explanation, argument or justification.
Start off in your introduction by saying what it is that you are going to describe or explain.
Then, in the main body give a paragraph to each stage in the process, showing how each follows naturally from the last one.
The conclusion should summarize the process and may highlight particularly significant points in it.
This structure can be used if you are describing a process, moving from cause to effect.
It can also be used to relate a chronological sequence of events, starting at the beginning and moving to the most recent.
Thematic structure
A thematic structure is useful if you are analysing or appraising a subject and there are a number of different factors to take into account.
Start off in your introduction by listing the different factors involved.
Then, in the main body, examine the subject in terms of each of the different factors. Deal with them one by one, devoting one or more paragraphs to each.
The conclusion should draw together connections between the different factors and provide an overall assessment.
This structure can be used for writing about a wide number of subjects. It is particularly useful as a tool for talking about complex subjects, as it breaks them down into a series of manageable chunks of information. You can use it when writing a report, an essay or a proposal.
The outline of a discussion essay below shows how you might use a thematic structure to analyse the effect of a proposal:
Discussion of proposal for new housing estate
Introduction: description of the proposed development
1. Political factors
2. Social factors
3. Economic factors
4. Environmental factors
5. Conclusion and recommendation
6. List of illustrations
Discuss your proposal for developing the area of Scampia in Naples and how it would contribute to improve living and working conditions in that area. Use the thematic structure above to develop your argument.
The Modernist Movement is approaching its one-hundredth birthday and it is becoming the subject of history. Some of its best-known examples are under way to becoming landmarks in the history of architecture. Write about this phenomenon and support the essay with illustrations. Develop your essay according to the following structure:
1. Sources: Gothic style; Baroque; The Arts and
Crafts movement; the Bauhaus movement.
2. Examine Modernism
1. Introduction- state theme and say why it is significant.
2. Precedents: origins, evolution, spread. Revivals of one or two historic styles.
3. Modernism: emergence as a style.
4. Criticism: sterility attributed to Modernism; its eclipse by Postmodernism.
5. Revival in 1990s.
6. Key players: Gropius; Le Corbusier; Mies van der Rohe; Venturi, etc.
7. Conclusion: Modernism today and in the future.
8. Illustrations.
Whatever structure you choose for presenting your ideas, keep the following points in mind:
1. Let the structure you choose show at once what it is that you have to say and the effect you wish to create.
2. Keep the structure simple so that your readers know what is going on and are able to follow your train
of thought all the way
3. Stick to the structure you have chosen throughout the essay. Don’t start off following one structural approach
and then abandon it half-way through for another argument.
4. The structure should be able to accommodate all of the necessary information.
5. If a piece of information does not fit into the structure you have chosen, it is probably because it is not really
necessary to include it.
6. Move forward steadily from paragraph to paragraph, giving each point as much attention as its role in the
structure deserves.
7. If one paragraph turns out to be especially short, check whether the point you make in it is actually worth
making on its own, or whether it cannot be moved elsewhere or even cancelled.
8. If a paragraph turns out to be especially long, ask yourself if the point made in it is so important that it needs
to be split up over several paragraphs.
9. Try to complete the discussion of a point in one place rather than leaving a point and coming back to it later
Guiding the reader
A clear overall structure should of itself help the reader to follow your train of thought and see how your message is developed. However, it does no harm to give the reader additional guidance.
In a longer essay you can use a number of devices to help your readers understand the structure:
Ø Explain the way you have structured your essay in your introduction.
Ø Break the essay up into sections.
Ø You may even want to break some of these sections into subsections.
Ø Use headings and subheadings to introduce new subjects so that your readers can see
immediately when there is a change of topic and what the new subject is.
You should also take steps to ensure that your readers know how things are progressing:
1. Tell your readers when you are moving to a new topic.
2. Make sure that your readers have enough background information to follow your argument.
You may find that you need to define some terms briefly before you can develop your
main theme.
3. If you are going to discuss a number of issues, list them all and then examine each one in
turn. This keeps your own mind focused as you write.
4. Use tables, lists and diagrams to present information. A well designed table or diagram can
be easier to understand than a lengthy verbal description.
5. Use linking devices throughout your writing to show your readers how what you are saying
relates to what has gone before.
Linking devices
Linking devices take your readers from one sentence or paragraph to the next in a smooth and coherent manner, helping them to follow the line of your argument. They may consist of words, phrases or whole sentences.
Sentence adverbs are commonly used as linking devices.
Unlike most other adverbs sentence adverbs do not come at the end of the sentence.
Sentence adverbs are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, at the beginning of a sentence or by two commas in the middle of the sentence.
Sentence adverbs are linking devices that comment on or qualify a whole sentence.
Nonetheless, whatever he did, turned out to be quite useless.
In contrast, architecture in Italy remains essentially classical..
On the other hand, there is no doubt that the project has made a real difference to some people’s lives.
Sentence adverbs are linking devices used to move the argument forward:
In addition, the quality of urban life has deteriorated.
Consequently, I am going to outline some of the philosophical aspects of aestheticism.
For example, architecture in Britain is.
Sentence adverbs are linking devices used to sum up an argument:
All things considered, the design of the residential area must be considered a failure.
In other words, there was little genuine progress.
On the whole, he had a low opinion of the projected presented to him..
Sentence adverbs can also remind the reader about things that have been covered in earlier parts of the essay:
As we have seen, there was little enthusiasm for the changes in the urban layout.
More specifically linking devices can be categorized as follows:
1. those indicating that you are adding something: also, furthermore, in addition, moreover, what is more
2. those indicating that you are introducing a comparison:, likewise, similarly
3. those indicating that you are introducing a contrast: but, conversely, however, in contrast, instead,
nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, rather, yet
4. those indicating a consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus
5. those indicating that you are introducing an illustration: for example, for instance
6. those indicating that you are restating something: in brief, in essence, in other words, in short, namely, that is
7. those indicating chronological sequence: earlier, first of all, in the meantime, meanwhile, next, simultaneously,
then, to begin with, while
8. those indicating that you are introducing a summary or final assessment: all in all, in conclusion, on the
whole, to sum up, to summarize
Besides helping to guide the reader from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph, linking devices can also be used as ‘signposts’ to your readers, alerting them to how your train of thought is progressing. They can indicate when you are about to make a change in the general direction of your argument:
Turning our attention from the social factors to the building programme, we must consider the architectural aspects of the city.
Linking devices are hugely important for good writing. However, you should not use one every time you start a sentence, as this would become monotonous. Readers generally assume that you are continuing with the same thread of meaning until you decide to tell them otherwise.
